Disaster Stress References

Armstrong, K., Lund, P., McWright, l., & Tichenor, V. (1995). Multiple Stressor Debriefing and the American Red Cross: The East Bay Hills Fire Experience. National Association of Social Workers, Inc, 83- 90.

This article highlights the importance of debriefing disaster relief workers to prevent or reduce negative stress reactions in traumatic situations. A short overview of debriefing models is given, along with a history of the fairly recent practice of debriefing. The authors' describe the phases of the multiple stressor debriefing model, and illuminate the process through the example of the 1991 East Bay Hills firestorm in California. Generalizing from the East Bay Hills experience, the authors conclude with relief workers with the MSD model. Concrete and specific suggestions are given, as well as a call for more research on the effectiveness of the MSD debriefing model.

Brooks, N., McKinlay, W. (1992). Mental Health Consequences of the Lockerbie Disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 527-543.

This article deals with the psychological aftermath of the 1988 terrorist bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. Much of the wreckage and the bodies from the plane rained down upon the town of Lockerbie, Scotland. The subjects of this study were claimants in lawsuits against Pan Am, and the authors investigated demographic and psychological factors of 66 of the claimants. The authors found that a very high percentage of the claimants had some damage to their homes, and that 68% had lost a friend in the bombing. PTSD was the most diagnosed disorder, with just under half of the claimants showing it at least moderately. Interestingly, the authors found that even though most claimants experienced PTSD and/or other stress responses, over a quarter showed no signs of disorder at all. In sum, the authors concluded that their subjects characteristics could not be categorized in a reliable manner in order to develop a demographic/ psychological profile predictive of morbidity.

Frattaroli, L. (1991). The San Francisco Public Sector Response to the Ioma Prieta Earthquake. Psychiatric Annals, 21, 547- 549.

This article describes the community response to the Ioma Pieta earthquake in 1989 through establishing shelters and mobilizing mental health support through outreach and intervention. The author describes some individual stress reactions in case reports. Additionally complicating matters was the relocation of two of the shelters - one had been on a naval ship, which subsequently had to go out to sea, and the other shelter was moved to the Presidio. Outreach efforts are described, including different levels of intervention, door to door visits, distribution of materials, etc. Intervention workers also went to schools to work with teachers, students, and their families.

Gersons, B., Carlier, I. (1993). Plane Crash Crisis Intervention: A Preliminary Report from the Bijlmermeer, Amsterdam. Crisis, 14, 109-116. This report deals with the psychological impact of plane crashes on survivors, rescue, and relief workers, noting that airline crashes are unique disaster situations (like earthquakes) in that there are no warnings, and consequently, no preparatory phases. The authors give a good description of the typical psychological responses to disasters, most of which fall under the umbrella of PTSD. Three brief case examples highlight PTSD through the reflections of three different people who, in three very different ways, were affected by the airline crash at Bijlmermeer, Amsterdam (1992). The article moves to a discussion of the three post-disaster phases; the immediate shock phase, the cry-out phase, and the post-trauma period - in the context of the Bijlmermeer crash. The authors conclude with a description of the problems and successes of the Bijlmermeer intervention program. Additionally, they discuss a follow-up project to the intervention program, and highlight the need for follow-up.

Komar, A. (1994). Adolescent School Crises: Structures, Issues, and Techniques for Postventions. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 35- 46.

This article deals with the issue of postvention in a school setting, with regard to suicide, accidents, or other unexpected deaths. Issues for teachers and the postvention team are outlined. Recommendations to teachers, administrators, and postvention teams are given. Included here are: how to deal with guilt (i.e. if warning signs of suicide were missed), how to deal with students (i.e. high risk survivors), and staff debriefing. The author also discusses reasons for "non- ideal" postventions- ineffective or insufficient postvention programs, and how these breakdowns can occur with administration, teachers, or postvention members. This is a good article for those directly involved in school specific postvention positions, but is also useful for school administrators and teachers.

Miller, R. (1995). Largest Earthquake at an American University, January 1994: University Counseling Perspective. Crisis Intervention, 1, 215-223.

This article gives a descriptive overview of the physical and psychological aftermath of the 1994 Martin Luther King Day earthquake that devastated California State University, Northridge. The author tells the story of the Counseling Service's Response, which rose literally out of the ruins. The article also briefly describes the experiences of students, faculty, and staff, the immediate outreach response, and the longer term counseling services. Also given is a short but helpful summary of lessons learned about disaster response. The author tells an inspirational narrative of the actions of the people of the university, richly describing the extensive physical destruction, and the ensuing implementation of services and intervention services and programs.

Ponton, L., and Bryant, E. (1991). After the Earthquake: Organizing to Respond to Children and Adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 21, 539-546.

This article discusses the psychiatrists' response to the need for consultation and counseling following the Ioma Prieta earthquake in 1989. The authors give a brief literature review with regard to the effect of disasters on children, including short descriptions of interventions for two pre-disaster and two post-disaster periods. The authors also discuss how educational materials were developed after the quake, and how some of these materials were distributed 2 weeks later to aid residents of Huntsville, Alabama, which was struck by a violent tornado. Also included is a more in-depth case report of an intervention program implemented in a private school. Descriptions of consultations with parents, children, and teachers are given, as well as a post-program evaluation.

Solomon, S., Bravo, M., Rubio- Stipec, M., and Canino, G. (1993). Effect of Family Role on Response to Disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 255- 269.

This is the report of a study investigating the effects of family roles in moderating stress reactions. Two different sets of subjects were studies: Puerto Rican residents exposed to flooding and mudslides, and St. Louis residents exposed to flooding and dioxins. Authors hypothesized that single parents exposed to trauma would demonstrate greater levels of negative stress response than all other groups, presumably because of lower levels of emotional support. Interestingly, however, they found that, across the board, single parents had greater levels of distress whether or not they had been exposed to the trauma. Additionally, married parents exposed showed similar negative reactions. These results only held for the St. Louis sample. In the Puerto Rican sample, the only subjects showing post - traumatic symptoms were the ones who had no families - spouses or children. After disentangling the complicating factors, the authors concluded that the single most important factor in minimizing stress response was perceived emotional support, and that it is therefore imperative in disaster situations to provide adequate support for victims.

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Information Publisher: Virginia Disaster Stress Intervention